12 requisitos para patrocinio de visa niñera para EE.UU

12 requisitos para patrocinio de visa nià ±era para EE.UU Trabajar como nià ±era (au pair) en Estados Unidos requiere seguir unas directrices estrictas establecidas por el gobierno para sacar la visa J-1 para ese programa especà ­fico. Adems, las agencias autorizadas para contratar extranjeros para esa posicià ³n pueden establecer sus propias preferencias. En este artà ­culo se informa sobre los requisitos legales y tambià ©n sobre los que habitualmente piden las agencias autorizadas para contratar. Adems, se mencionan otras programas alternativos pensados para jà ³venes extranjeros que quieren pasar una temporada corta en Estados Unidos aprendiendo inglà ©s y disfrutando la experiencia americana. Puntos clave La visa para nià ±eras extranjeras es la J-1, programa de au-pairSolamente agencias autorizadas por el gobierno de EE.UU. pueden patrocinar la visaAunque se habla de nià ±era, lo cierto es que se puede ser mujer o varà ³nEl tiempo mà ­nimo de estancia en EE.UU. es de un aà ±o y el mximo de 2. 8 requisitos legales de visa J-1 para trabajar de nià ±era en EE.UU. Para poder aplicar con à ©xito para una visa J-1 en el programa especà ­fico para nià ±eras es obligatorio cumplir con requisitos de edad, estudios y experiencia. Los principales son los ocho siguientes: Tener entre 18 y 26 aà ±os de edad, gozar de buena salud, no tener rà ©cord criminal y haber completado, como mà ­nimo, los estudios de secundaria. Adems, es necesario poder demostrar experiencia de al menos 200 horas de trabajo cuidando nià ±os. La manera de probarlo admite muchas variantes, desde haber trabajado en una escuela o guarderà ­a a tener muchos hermanos pequeà ±os o participar como voluntario en campamentos infantiles, escuelas dominicales, etc. Tambià ©n se exige no haber estado previamente en Estados Unidos como au pair, es decir, nià ±era. Asimismo, es necesario entender y hablar, como mà ­nimo, un inglà ©s de nivel intermedio. Finalmente, las reglas de esta visa exige a los candidatos comprometerse a vivir con una familia estadounidense un mà ­nimo de un aà ±o. Este periodo se puede extender por tres, seis o doce meses. 4 requisitos de las agencias para patrocinar la visa de nià ±era Estos requisitos son obligatorios, desde un punto de vista legal, pero lo cierto es que para las agencias es mucho ms fcil colocar en una familia a una au pair que los reà ºna y, por lo tanto, suelen pedirlos. Entre los ms frecuentes destacan los siguientes: En primer lugar, ser mujer. Es un hecho, las familias prefieren a una muchacha antes que a un varà ³n para trabajar en sus casas cuidando de los nià ±os. En segundo lugar, tener licencia de manejar. Hay que tener en cuenta que en muchà ­simos lugares de Estados Unidos el transporte pà ºblico puede ser inexistente y que las distancias son enormes. Facilita mucho la contratacià ³n el saber que una persona sabe manejar. En tercer lugar, ser flexible en cuanto al rea geogrfica en la que se quiere vivir y tambià ©n en relacià ³n al nà ºmero de hijos que debe tener la familia de acogida. Una au pair que quiera ser contratada en zonas muy populares como California o Nueva York y en casas con un sà ³lo menor puede tener ms dificultades a la hora de encontrar una familia. Y, en cuarto lugar, no fumar. Estos son los Estados Unidos de Amà ©rica. Va a ser realmente difà ­cil y tomar su tiempo antes de que se encuentre a una familia dispuesta a contratar a una nià ±era fumadora. A tener muy en cuenta para evitar problemas migratorios Para los extranjeros sin papeles para trabajar en EE.UU. sà ³lo es posible pasar una temporada como au pair en Estados Unidos participando en el programa a travà ©s de agencias autorizadas por el gobierno. Si hay una familia dispuesta a patrocinar a una extranjera como nià ±era, la familia deber hablar con una agencia autorizada para patrocinar visas J-1 de au-pair y el papeleo debe hacerse a travà ©s de ellas. En otras palabras, una familia estadounidense no puede patrocinar directamente una visa J-1 de esta categorà ­a. Para asegurarse de que se trata con una agencia legà ­tima y que no se est ante un caso de fraude, se recomienda verificar que est incluida en el listado de la pgina oficial del Departamento de Estado para estos efectos. Si es una agencia ubicada en fuera de los Estados Unidos, verificar para quà © agencia autorizada en Estados Unidos est trabajando. Las au pairs recibirn una visa J, que son de intercambio. Debern respetar sus caracterà ­sticas generales que aplican a todos los programas incluidos en esa categorà ­a de visa.   Adems, para recibir la visa no es suficiente con tener en mano la oferta de la familia y la intervencià ³n de la agencia autorizada. Si se es inelegible o inadmisible para recibir la visa, la peticià ³n de esta ser negada por el oficial consular. Por à ºltimo, se recomienda encarecidamente no mentir sobre los conocimientos de inglà ©s. En el momento de la entrevista en la Embajada o consulado se determinar si realmente se tiene el nivel de inglà ©s requerido. Si no se tiene, la visa ser denegada, el dinero de la aplicacià ³n no se regresa y la mentira quedar en el rà ©cord de la solicitante para las autoridades consulares y migratorias de Estados Unidos. Opciones a la visa de nià ±era Los jà ³venes de otros paà ­ses que desean pasar una temporada en Estados Unidos trabajando y aprendiendo inglà ©s pueden optar a distintos tipos de programas dentro de la categorà ­a de visas J-1, por ejemplo: Prcticas o pasantà ­as en una ONG.Estudiante de high school durante un aà ±o acadà ©mico completoPrcticas profesionalesVisa para trabajar y viajar en veranoTrabajo en un Summer Camp  como staff de un campamento de verano. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Explain how Shakespeare conveys different emotions and moods in Romeo and Juliet Essays

Explain how Shakespeare conveys different emotions and moods in Romeo and Juliet Essays Explain how Shakespeare conveys different emotions and moods in Romeo and Juliet Paper Explain how Shakespeare conveys different emotions and moods in Romeo and Juliet Paper Romeo and Juliet is a play written by William Shakespeare in 1595 and takes place in the Italian city of Verona and surrounding areas. The story centers on the tragic love story of Romeo (A Montague) and Juliet (A Capulet). They fall for each other but their love must be secret as their families share a bitter hatred of each other. The play shows the star crossd lovers effort to get away from each of their families and the problems that arise in their plan. Romeo and Juliet is an age old play but is still very well known in todays society because of its long lasting universal themes love and hate, war and peace, arranged marriage and so on.In this essay I will try to and hopefully succeed in answering the above question as well as possible, using the knowledge that I know of and quotes from the play.Just before Act 1 scene 5, Romeo is infatuated by Rosaline and is distressed because he loves her but she does not love him. Out of her favor where I am in love. Romeo is annoyed by Rosaline and later on he shows that his unfortunate relationship with her has made time go very slowly. This is a complete contrast to Juliet, who when Romeo is with her, time seems to fly.Later on, Benvolio and Mercutio tell Romeo that he should come to Capulets party,Citing that he would find another girl and forget all about Rosaline. I fear too early, for my mind misgives..Some consequence, hanging in the starsRomeo conveys his idea about that there might be a problem, going to the ball. He says that there might be a problem and it will be bad. His friends do not car about what he has said and take him to the party, showing that he has no power over what his friends do, telling us he is not very forceful.While at the party, Tybalt sees and recognizes Romeo and is furious until Capulet confronts him and tells him off.He shall be endured.. Am I the master here, or you? You will make a mutiny amongst my guests!This demonstrates Capulet anger with Tybalt apparent freedom ness to do what he wants. He shouts at him, telling him off, telling him that he is the master and Tybalt will do as Capulet wants. Word such as Mutiny are linked to military actions and shows that Capulet is very much in control and very strict. This shows that Capulet is strong and forceful.Tybalt is taken aback and shows his intense hatred with comments like:It fits when such a villain is a guest, Il not endure him!This suggests that Tybalt intensely hates Montagues and wishes nothing more than for them to die. Other comment use strong language and shows that Tybalt is loose cannon; also showing is passion for his hatred.On the other hand, Romeo sees Juliet for the first time and is taken aback by how beautiful she is:Did my heart love till now? For I never saw true beauty till this night.This shows that Romeo sees Juliet as the most beautiful thing Romeo has ever seen, and he has probably forgotten all about Rosaline, who he appeared to have such a huge infatuation with at the beginning of the play. Romeo says this quote at the point of his monologue when he is watching Juliet dance. Words such as true beauty show Romeos passion. They talk and kiss, falling for each other.At the end of the party the mood changes totally. Romeo finds out that Juliet is a Capulet and is distressed:Is she a Capulet? O dear account,My life is my foes debtThis language shows that Romeo is disappointed and annoyed. My life is my foes debt implies that his life is in ruins as his love is his enemy. Juliet shares the same emotions when Nurse tells her that Romeo is a Montague.My only love sprung from my only hate..That I must have loathed an enemy.Juliets comment there shows there shows that Juliet is disappointed as well, with her only love coming from her intense enemy. It seems quite ironic that is that this happens and gives the story a unique twist, giving the story more life. Words such as loathed show Juliets disappointed as loathed is a strong word in my view.Aft er Capulets party in act 1 scene 5, Romeo shares the famous balcony scene with Juliet. They exchange vows of love and agree to marry in secret. The following day, with the help of Friar Lawrence and Nurse, Romeo and Juliet marry. On Romeos way back, he encounters Mercutio and Tybalt fighting because Tybalt was angry with Romeos presence at the party. Tybalt kills Mercutio, causing Romeo to become very mad and slay Tybalt. Prince hears of this and vows that when he finds Romeo he will banish him to Mantua. Romeo spends one last night with Juliet and in the morning he sets forth, out of Verona forever. That same morning, Capulet tries to help Juliets apparent misery about Tybalts death (when really it was about Romeo) by agreeing to give Paris Juliets hand in marriage. Juliet is distraught and disagrees, causing Capulet to threaten to disown her. That day, Juliet seeks Friar Lawrence who gives her a potion to let her into a deathly sleep for 24 hours. She will wake up in the crypt, aw aiting Romeo (who will be alerted by letters) to take her away. This is where we come into more detail.At night, Juliet is being attended to by the Nurse and her mother. She wishes for them to leave her alone and uses orisons (prayers) as an excuse.I pray thee leave me.. For I am in needof many orisonsThis comment shows desperate times call for desperate shows, as Juliet uses such holy acts to be left alone. It also shows that Juliet may be a sinner, as Lady Capulet had no queries about her prayers, she might pray a lot- a lot of sins. Most probable answer would be Lady Capulet thinking it was Tybalt who she was crying about. When Juliet is alone, she begins to think that the mixture will not work and she is afraid.What if this mixture does not work at all? Shall I be marriedthen tomorrow morning?This, as I have already said, shows Juliets fear of it not working. It shows very strongly that Juliet is extremely afraid of getting married to Paris. This shows commitment to Romeo. Juli et then begins to doubt the friar and his involvement with the whole marriage and the supposed sleeping potion.What if it be poison which the Friar subtly administered toHave me deadThis again conveys fear. Juliet is quite right to think this, if anyone found out about the marriage and who married them, it would be Friar who would be in trouble. He would need to clean up his tracks if he were to remain safe and no one would know. Many different angles are being rushed around in Juliets mind. Juliet then begins to think about when she inside the crypt. What if she wakes up and Romeo is not there?How if, when I am laid in the tomb, I wakeBefore Romeo comes. And I am there strangldJuliet has many fears; most of all is dying and marriage to Paris. This again shows Juliets fear, as with the other four quotes in this paragraph. Words such as strangld show that she is afraid of suffocation. In other comments about the crypt, Juliet fears the bodies in the tomb may come alive and attack her . She fears most of all, Tybalts body.She eventually drinks the potion out of love for her Romeo.Romeo, Romeo heres the drink I drink to theeThis again shows Juliets love and commitment for Romeo. She will risk anything for love, much of the same as Romeo would do if he were in the same position. It shows that they are truly in love and were meant to be.

Continuum of Conflict Management Approaches Essay

Continuum of Conflict Management Approaches - Essay Example Conflict management on the other hand refers to the process of identifying conflicts early, and dealing with them in a sensible, consultative and fair manner. The process involves the use of such skills as effective communication, analytical kills, problem solving and negotiation skills and a critical focus on areas of interest for all parties involved (Moore, 2003). With conflicts ranging from interpersonal disagreements, disagreements in organizations and work places, team conflicts to tribal and racial conflicts either over natural resources, over ideological and religious persuasions among other reasons, many scholars, state governments and welfare organizations have invested enormously in resolution and management options. There are many scholarly materials on management and resolution of different types of conflicts, giving pre-eminence to natural resource and governance conflicts, since they are the most prevalent forms of conflicts across the globe. Others focus purely on sma ll magnitude conflicts involving individuals, families, teams and small groupings in work places, sporting arena or collages. Whether small disagreements between individuals, internal conflicts in a state, a country or international conflicts, resolution and management strategies are universal, varying only in the manner of their application, this is case specific. Among the many strategies formulated by different scholars and experts in the field, is the conflict management continuum presented in 2003 by Moore, offering management approaches that range from avoidance of conflicts on one end to violence on the other extreme end. According to Moore in the continuum, avoidance on the left end presents the soft form of conflict management, with the subsequent strategies becoming increasingly progressive, directive and eventually coercive towards violence at the right end of the continuum. The continuum consists of seven different means of conflict management divided into four sub categ ories. These categories include informal decision making by conflicting parties, under which there are three means namely conflict avoidance, negotiation and mediation. The next category is the informal third party decision- making, which involves resolution of conflicts by use of arbitration. The third category is legal authoritarian third party decision-making, which involves adjudication through legal court processes. Finally, there is extralegal coerced decision-making category, which includes non-violent direct action and violence at the right end of the continuum. Conflict avoidance refers to a style of conflict management that uses non-confrontational means to resolving problems. Common strategies under this approach include passive behaviours like withdrawing from contentious issues, especially if the issues are not very important to warrant confrontations. It is particularly useful in avoiding conflicting situations in work places, homes and other similar places where genui ne errors, slight misunderstandings or differences in perceptions and opinions occur often. Either party choose to avoid engaging in arguments and conflicting situations especially if the resultant negative consequences outweigh positive outcomes offered by a quick proactive resolution. This technique is particularly useful in situations that require additional information on the contentious issue in order to make clearer decisions. The major flaw of this strategy is that it may form a favourable environment for the conflict to grow

Reagan and Gorbachev at Reykjavik, 1986 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reagan and Gorbachev at Reykjavik, 1986 - Essay Example Hearing someone say something, even through an interpreter, hearing their tone, seeing their body language, is much better than any e-mail, phone call or letter. Friendships can be developed and communication levels would have been at their optimum. However, no definite agreement in writing was reached at this meeting. Was it therefore merely a non-event? The Reykjavik summit is chiefly remembered for what almost occurred there, what might have happened. Is it possible for something that didn't happen to be significant historically? If it is to be classed as a non-event does that mean that it is significantly different from an event that actually took place i.e. the signing of an actual bi-lateral agreement. Is the historical significance of a non-event inevitably different in character from the significance of an event that did actually occur? This essay will consider this question. Firstly the American administration considered Reyjavik to be only a preliminary meeting, taking thei r cue from Gorbachev’s letter perhaps1, a response to an earlier one from President Reagan. In it the Russian asks only for a very brief meeting where mutually agreeable solutions could be discussed based upon a political will on both sides to succeed in bringing the arms race between the two powers to a peaceful conclusion. It wasn’t expected to be that important. However it is clear from transcripts of their conversations that other topics such as human rights were on the table and perhaps these add to the significance? The list of topics to be covered provided by the American Secretary of State 2certainly saw a decision to have arms talks as being a possible outcome, rather than actual talks. So this was part of a process which would eventually lead to disarmament. This means that this was not a non-event , but the beginnings without which the rest of the process could not have continued. It laid foundations upon which both sides could built . Gorbachev was very ope n. As Document 93 makes clear he was willing to discuss whatever topics Reagan introduced, not just nuclear weapons and possible future disarmament. Also despite the final failure to come to a definite agreement Gorbachev was able to return home and say ‘You see, Reagan is a man we can work with.’ 4 Despite this it seems from Document 6 5that the Soviet reason’s for calling the meeting had been completely misunderstood in Washington. They give a number of possible reasons, but seem to have no way of knowing which is correct. Also, according to Document 7,6 they seem unsure as to how President Reagan should react. The two leaders were able to meet face to face for several days. Their meeting had been originally planned to be a preliminary discussion, as shown by Gorbachev’s letter to the American President in October 1986, but in the end, verbally at least, they agreed bilaterally to greatly reduce their arms, including both nuclear and ballistic weapons. T he agreement later floundered however over details. According to Sokov7 the preparations had been poor and negotiations were disorganised . So politically was this a non-event? George Shultz, the then American Secretary of State had brought the two men together. He is quoted by Sokov as having said :- I suppose that what startled people in Reykjavik was not what was said, because both Reagan and Gorbachev had

Ap European History Chapter Essay Example for Free

Ap European History Chapter Essay The chief minister to King Henry VIII, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey and Sir Thomas More, Wolsey’s successor, guided the opposition to Protestantism. The king earned the title â€Å"Defender of the Faith† by protecting the 7 sacraments against Luther’s attacks. Thomas More wrote Response to Luther in 1523. The King’s Affair The King’s marriage kick started the English Reformation. Catherine Aragon would not produce a male heir for King Henry VIII, only Mary, and Henry wanted a divorce. Catherine had first been the wife of Henry’s brother, Arthur, but he died, so Henry inherited Catherine. They were married in 1509 with a special dispensation from Pope Julius II himself. By the time of his divorce conflict, Henry was in love with Anne Boleyn, one of Catherine’s ladies-in-waiting. He wanted to wed Anne instead of Catherine. However, he could not get a divorce because Pope Clement VII was a prisoner of Charles V. Cardinal Wolsey, who was in charge of securing and annulment, was dismissed in shame when he failed to do so. Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell, both of whom harbored Lutheran sympathies then became Henry’s most trusted advisors. They wanted to create an English church of which the King would be the head. This allowed Henry to annul his own marriage. The â€Å"Reformation Parliament† In 1529, Parliament convened for a seven-year session. It was called the â€Å"Reformation Parliament†. During this period, it passed legislation that placed reins on the clergy. In 1531, the Convocation recognized that the King was the head of the Church. The Parliament published grievances against the Church, ranging from indifference to the laity to too many religious holidays. Parliament also passed Submission of the Clergy which brought canon law under royal control, and the clergy into royal jurisdiction. In 1533, Henry wed Boleyn and Parliament made the king the highest court of appeal for citizens. Also in 1533, Cranmer led the Convocation to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine. In 1534, Parliament ended all payments by the laity and clergy to Rome and gave Henry power over ecclesiastical appointments. The Act of Succession made Anne Boleyn’s children legitimate. The Act of Supremacy made Henry the only head in earth of the Church of England. When Thomas More and John Fischer refused to recognize the Act of Succession and the Act of Supremacy, Henry had them executed to prove a point. In 1536 and 1538, Parliament dissolved England’s monasteries and nunneries. Wives of Henry VIII In 1536, Anne Boleyn was executed for treason and adultery, and her daughter Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Jane Seymour died in 1537, after giving birth to Edward. On the advice of Cromwell, he wed Anne of Cleves. The marriage was annulled by Parliament and Cromwell was executed. Catherine Howard, the fifth wife, was killed for adultery in 1542. Catherine Parr lived. The King’s Religious Conservatism Henry remained decidedly conservative in his religious beliefs. With the Ten Articles of 1536, he made mild confessions to Protestant tenets and maintained Catholic Doctrine. He forbade the clergy to marry or have concubines. Henry wrote the Six Articles of 1539 to strike at Protestant views. They reaffirmed transubstantiation, denied the Eucharistic cup to the laity, declared celibate vows inviolable, provided for private masses, and ordered the continuation of oral confession. Although William Tyndale’s translation was mandated in Parishes, England had to wait till Henry’s death until it could declare itself a Protestant country. The Protestant Reformation under Edward VI Edward was ten when his father died. During this reign, England fully enacted the Protestant Reformation. Edward VI and Somerset responded directly to John Calvin. During Somerset’s regency, Henry’s Six Articles and laws against heresy were fully repealed. Clerical marriage and communion with cup were sanctioned. In 1547, places where endowed masses had traditionally been said for the dead were dissolved. Images and altars were removed from churches in 1550. After Charles V’s victory over the German princes in 1547, German Protestant leaders fled to England for refuge. These people helped to guide the Reformation in England. The Second Act of Uniformity imposed a revised Book of Common Prayer on all churches. Thomas Cranmer’s 42 article confession of faith set forth moderate Protestant doctrine. It taught justification by faith and the supremacy of the Holy Scripture, denied transubstantiation, and recognized only two of the seven sacraments. All of the changes were short-lived however. In 1553, Mary I took Edward’s throne after his death and proceeded to revert back to Catholic doctrine and practice with a single-mindedness rivaling only that of her father’s. It was not until Anne Boleyn’s daughter’s reign that lasting religious settlement was worked out in England. Catholic Reform and the Counter-Reformation The Protestant Reformation was not a surprise. There were internal criticisms and ideas of reform within the Church already even before the Counter-Reformation in reaction to Protestant success. Sources of Catholic Reform Popes preferred â€Å"Men are to be changed by, not to change, religion. † – Superior General of the Hermits of Saint Augustine, instead of changing laws and institutions of the Church. Although the Church denounced it, there were still orders that pushed for reform: Theatines (1524) – Groomed the devout and reform minded leaders at the higher levels of the Church hierarchy. One of the cofounders of this order was Bishop Gian Pietro Carafa, who became Pope Paul IV. Capuchins (Recognized in 1528) – Sought to return to the ascetic and charitable ideals of Saint Francis and became popular among ordinary folks, who were their audience. Somaschi (mid-1520s) and Barnabites (1530) – Directed their efforts at repairing the moral, spiritual, and physical damage done to people in war-torn areas of Italy. For Women: Ursulines (1535) – Established convents in Italy and France for the religious education of girls from all social classes and became very influential. Oratorians (Recognized in 1575) – An elite group of secular clerics who devoted themselves to the promotion of religious literature and church music – One member was Giovanni Perluigi da Palestrina (1526 – 1594). In addition to these lay and clerical movements, Spanish mystics Saint Teresa of Avila (1515 – 1582) and Saint John of the Cross (1542 – 1591) popularized the mystical piety of medieval monasticism. Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits The most successful reform group of the Counter-Reformation was the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits (Recognized by the church in 1540, began in 1530s). It grew so much that people went on missions to convert other who lived in Asia, the Americas and even Africa. The founder of Jesuits, Ignatius of Loyola, was a hero. His legs were injured during a battle with the French. He swore to become a religious person if he were to survive his injuries. While injured, he had a revelation, and after his recuperation, he began to preach about his revelations. He wrote Spiritual Exercises. He declared that people could shape their own behaviors through self-discipline and practice. In Jesuits eyes, Protestant dissenters were considered as disobedient of the Church authority, and by religious innovation. However, Ignatius of Loyola taught that people should submit to the authority of the Church and spiritual direction. The Council of Trent (1545 – 1563) The success of the Reformation and the insistence of Charles V caused Pope Paul to call for a general council of the church to reassert church doctrine. Caspar Contarini headed the council: he was a leading liberal theologian. However, even Contarini seemed blunt in his report by saying that the simony and the fiscal practices of the Roman Curia were the loss of Church esteem. The report was so critical that Paul IV could not suppress its distribution. Protestants printed and reprinted it to assert control over even the Papacy. The Council of Trent itself met in the following time periods: 1545 – 1547, 1551 – 1552, and 1562 – 1563, a period that spanned the careers of three popes. The laity was not permitted to share in the council’s decisions. The Council’s most important decisions were concerning the internal church discipline. It curtailed the sales of Church offices and other Church goods. Those who resided in Rome instead of the dioceses were forced to move their appointed seats of power. Trent oversaw that bishops could effectively enforce religious discipline and that bishops were subjected to rules that required them to be visible in regular preaching and conduct regular visitations. Parish priests were also to neatly dress, be better educated, strictly celibate, and active among parishioners. A seminary was also constructed in each diocese. The Council of Trent reaffirmed the following: Traditional Scholastic Education of the Clergy The role of good works in salvation The authority of tradition The seven sacraments Transubstantiation The withholding of the Eucharistic cup from the laity Clerical celibacy The reality of purgatory The veneration of saints, relics and sacred images The granting of letters of indulgences The Church solved medieval Scholastic quarrels in favor of the ideologies of Thomas Aquinas, who asserted his authority in the Church. Thereafter, the church offered its strongest resistance to groups like the Jansenists, who strongly endorsed the medieval Augustinian tradition, a source of alternative Catholic, as well as many Protestant, doctrines. Rulers were initially afraid that their lands were beginning to be taken over by papal authority, until the pope reassured them that the orders were by his decree only. The Social Significance of the Reformation in Western Europe Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinists often worked within the framework of reigning political power. This is because the founders themselves believed that they were not on Earth to change the political power, but only to reform religion. They remained highly sensitive to what was politically and socially possible in their age. Some scholars and historians believe that they encouraged acceptance of the sociopolitical status quo of their time. The Revolution in Religious Practices and Institutions The Reformation may have been politically conservative, but by the end of the 16th century, it had brought about radical changes in traditional religious practices and institutions in those lands where it succeeded. Religion in Fifteenth-Century Life Six to eight percent of the population in cities that later turned Protestant was the clergy and the religious, and they exercised political as well as spiritual power. They legislated, taxed, tried cases in special church courts, and they enforced their laws with threats of excommunication. The Church calendar regulated daily life. About one third of the year was given over to some kind of religious observance or celebration. There were frequent period of fasting. Monasteries, especially nunneries, were extremely prominent and influential institutions. The children of society’s most wealthy and powerful citizens resided there. On the streets, friars begged for alms from passerby. In Church, the mass and liturgy were read in Latin. Images of saints were regularly displayed, and on certain holidays their relics were paraded about and venerated. Local religious shrines enjoyed booming business. Pilgrims gathered there for either cures for illnesses, diversion, or even entertainment. Several times during the year, special preachers would come to sell indulgences. Many clergy walked the streets with concubines, even though there were banned from marriage. They only had to pay a small penitent to the Church for toleration. People everywhere could be heard complaining about the clergy’s exemption from taxation and from the civil criminal code. They also grumbled about having to support church offices whose occupants actually lived and worked elsewhere. Townspeople thought that education should be more secular. Religion in Sixteenth-Century Life Although few changes to social and political institutions were clear, the Reformation had firmly taken root in these cities. Overall numbers of the clergy decreased by about two thirds and the number of religious holidays fell by around one third. Places of religious seclusion were almost gone; the remaining ones were transformed into places for the sick and poor or places for education. Churches, which also had been reduced in number by about one third, conducted worship in the vernacular. The laity observed no obligatory fasts. Indulgence preachers no longer appeared. Local shrines were closed down. People venerating saints, relics and images were subject to fines and punishment. Copies or even excerpts of Luther’s translation of the New Testament were common in every household, and even the clergy began to meditate on them. The clergy were allowed to marry, and most did. They paid taxes and were punished in civil courts. Domestic moral life was regulated by committees of about equal numbers of laity and clergy: secular magistrates had the last word in these. Whereas ? of Europe could be considered Protestant in the 16th Century, only about one-fifth was Protestant in the mid-17th Century. The Reformation and Education A great cultural achievement was the Reformation’s implementation of many of the educational reforms of humanism in the Protestant schools and universities. Protestant reformers shared with humanists a common opposition to scholasticism and a belief in unity of wisdom, eloquence, and action. The humanist program of studies was an appropriate tool for the elaboration of Protestant doctrine, which remained ascendant in the Counter-Reformation. The Catholic counter-reformers acknowledged the close connections between the Reformation and the humanism. Ignatius of Loyola observed that new learning was embraced by the Protestants. In his Spiritual Exercises, he said that when the Bible was read directly, it be read under the authority of: Thomas Aquinas, Peter Lombard, and Bonaventure. These people had the clearest understanding, and should guide the study of the Scriptures. In August 1518, Philip Melanchthon (1497 – 1560), arrived at the University of Wittenburg, first implemented the curricular reforms on the humanist model. In his inaugural address, On Improving the Studies of the Young, he presented himself as a defender of the classical studies against â€Å"barbarians who practice barbarous arts†. Melanchthon urged the study of history, poetry and other humanist disciplines. Together, Luther and Melanchthon restructured the University of Wittenburg’s curriculum. Commentaries on Lombard’s Sentences were dropped, as was canon law. Straightforward historical study replaced the old Scholastic lectures on Aristotle. Students read from primary sources, not trusted commentators. New chairs of Greek and Hebrew were created. Luther and Melanchthon also pressed for universal compulsory education so that both boys and girls could get educated in the vernacular. In Geneva, John Calvin and Theodore Beza created the Genevan Academy, which later became the University of Geneva. It was created primarily for Calvinist Ministers, and pursued ideals similar to those set forth by Luther and Melanchthon. Because of the spread of Protestantism from this Academy, a working knowledge of Greek and Hebrew became commonplace in educated circles in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Some people believed that Protestantism was taking over humanism. Erasmus thought that the Reformation was a threat to the liberal arts and good learning. Sebastian Franck pointed out that there were parallels between Luther and Zwingli’s debates and the debate over the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. In spite of these clashes, Humanist culture was indebted to the Reformation. Protestant endorsement of the humanist program remained significant to Humanism even after the Reformation. Protestant schools consolidated and preserved humanist culture for the modern world. In these Protestant schools, the studia humanitatis took hold. The Reformation and the Changing Role of Women Protestant reformers took a positive stand on clerical marriage and opposed monasticism and celibacy. They opposed the popular anti-woman and anti-marriage literature of the Medieval Period. They praised woman in her own right, but especially in her role as a housewife and mother. Although marriage laws gave women greater security, they were still subjects to their husbands. Protestant arguments for marriage included relief of sexual frustration and as a remedy for fornication. Many reformers acknowledged the power of women and could not imagine a world without them. Luther himself wrote that â€Å"Men cannot do without women. † John Calvin stated at the death of his wife that â€Å"I have been bereaved of the best companion of my life. † Such tributes were used to overcome the Catholic Church’s belief that marriage may distract the clergy. Protestants also stressed as no religious movement before them had, the sacredness of marriage and the family life. This attitude created a more respectful relationship between husband and wife and family. The Protestants also believed that women had equal rights to divorce and remarry in good conscience. The reformers were more willing to permit divorce and remarriage on grounds of adultery and abandonment than were the secular magistrates. These magistrates thought that liberal divorce laws would lead to social reform. Women in nunneries wrote that their overseeing by men was just as abusive as their married life. Women in higher classes found a religious component to their greater freedom in life. They believed that the cloister provided an interesting and independent way of life that their secular lives could not provide. Protestants encouraged the education of girls in the vernacular because they wanted women to become pious housewives. Through their education, women found that they were equal to men in the eyes of God. Education also gave women a role as independent authors of the Reformation. These advances were important in the steps toward the emancipation of women completely. Family Life in Early Modern Europe Changes in the timing and the duration of marriage, in family size, and in infant and child care suggest that family life was under a variety of social and economic pressures in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Reformation was a factor in these changes, but not the only or even the major one. Families have certain force and logic of their own, regardless of where they are and when they are. Differences in people lay in the ways different cultures and religions infuse family life with values and influence the behavior of family members. Later Marriages Between 1500 and 1800, men and women in Western Europe and England married at later ages. Men tended to in their mid to late-twenties and women in their mid-twenties. The Church sanctioned previously that the age for legal marriage was 14 for men and 12 for women. This might have occurred among the royalty and nobility. After the Reformation, the church required both parental agreement and public vows before a marriage could be recognized as legal. Late marriage in the West reflected the difficulty of being independent for the bachelor period. The difficulty arose because of the population growth during the 15th and 16th centuries (population was recovered from the Black Death). Larger families meant more heirs and a greater division of resources. In German and Scandinavian countries, inheritance would be divided among all male children. People were taking longer to prepare themselves for marriage than before. One in five women never married, and 15% were unmarried widows. A later marriage meant one of shorter duration. Women who bore children for the first time at later ages had a higher mortality than those who bore children at earlier ages. Because of this delayed marriage system, there was increased premarital fornication, and in turn, many illegitimate children were produced. Arranged Marriages Many marriages were arranged in the sense that parents would meet the parents of the spouse before conducting the ceremony. By the fifteenth century, it was not uncommon for bride and groom to have previously known each other, or even have had a previous relationship. Emotional feeling for one another was respected by the parents. Parents did not force marriages, and children could say â€Å"No†. A forced marriage was invalid and unwanted marriages would not last. Family Size The average husband and wife had eight children, and ? of them died by their teens, one third by the age of five. Families lived with their in-laws, servants, laborers and boarders. This was a nuclear family. Birth Control Ever since the beginning of mankind, there have been attempts to control child birth. The church’s banning of male withdrawal before ejaculation is a sign that it had been attempted before. Thomas Aquinas believed that the natural end of coitus was the creation of a child. Wet Nursing The church allied itself with physicians on the matter of condemning women who hired wet nurses. The practice however, was popular among high-class women. Children who were wet nursed usually had a higher mortality rate. To husband’s, a nursing wife was a reluctant lover. Many women prolonged nursing in order to delay a pregnancy. However, noblemen did not like this because they needed a male heir. This jeopardized the patrimony, and they supported wet nursing. Loving Families? Between the ages of eight and thirteen, children were sent out to apprenticeships, schools, or into employment. Widowers and widows married again within a few months of their spouses’ deaths, and marriage with great difference between age limited affection. Literary Imagination in Transition Alongside the political and cultural changes brought about by the new religious systems of the Reformation, medieval outlooks and values continued into the 17th century. However, the literary figures of the post-Reformation period had elements of both old and new styles. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: Rejection of Idealism Spanish literature of the 16th and 17th centuries reflects the peculiar religious and political history of Spain in this period. Traditional Catholicism was a major part of Spanish life. Since the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the church received the support of reigning political power. The power of the church and the Inquisition did not allow for Protestantism to gain room in Spain. The piety of rulers also influenced Spanish rulers. The third influence was the preoccupation with medieval chivalric virtues, in particular, questions of honor and loyalty. Spanish literature remained more Catholic and medieval than that of England and France, where two Protestant movements occurred. Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderon, two of the period’s greatest writers, became priests. Cervantes only had a little bit of formal education. He educated himself by wide reading in popular literature and immersion in the â€Å"School of Life. † In prison, in 1603, he began to write Don Quixote. The first part of Don Quixote appeared in 1605. This work was written to satirize the chivalric romances then popular in Spain. Cervantes presents Don Quixote as an unstable middle class man. By reading too many chivalric romances, he believed he was an aspiring knight who had to prove himself through brave deeds. Don Quixote’s foil – Sancho Panza, a clever, worldly peasant who serves as Quixote’s squire – watches with bemused skepticism as his lord battles with a windmill, which he mistakes for a dragon. At the end, Quixote comes to his senses after a well-meaning friend defeats him â€Å"in battle† as a â€Å"knight†. Quixote returns to his village as a defeated man to die a brokenhearted old man’s death. Throughout the novel, Cervantes juxtaposes the realism of Panza with the religious idealism of Quixote. The reader however, perceives that Cervantes loved both characters equally. William Shakespeare: Dramatist of the Age

Essay --

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Hemigrapsus sanguineus Hemigrapsus sanguineus (de Haan, 1835), commonly known as the Asian shore crab, is a brachyuran crab, and is a native species along the western North Pacific coast (Brousseau et al., 2001). Its square and broad carapace has three spines on each side and there finely striated ridge exist under the eye and lateral margin. Its usual size is 30 mm wide but maximum size reported can reach up to 43.9 mm carapace width (CW) (McDermott, 1998). Its color varies from purple, red, green, orange-brown, with the presence of bands along its legs and red spots on the cheliped claws (Poore,2004). Males are characterized by the presence of distinctive fleshy, bulb-like structure at the cheliped base of the dactylus the shape of the flap on the underbelly in males is quite phallic, triangular and pointed. The females are recognized thru the roundness, wider and more oval flap of abdomen morphology. Easily opened flap of female crabs only implies that they are capable of mating. (Poore,2004). The local scope of this crab species is the region of Asia-Pacific (McDermott, 1998). It was observed that this species has penetrated parts of the Europe and North America, specifically France, Netherlands, and Croatia and is now classified to be an invasive species (McDermott, 1991). It is considered invasive because it is capable of reaching high densities and can initiate negative impacts on several small juveniles of native species (Lohrer and Whitlatch, 2002a,b). Asian shore crabs are considered as opportunistic omnivores (McDermott, 1998). They consume a varied kind of plant and animal resources in the field and also when they are in captivity. These resources would include algae, salt marsh grass, a... ...rtional relationship, which implies that the wet weight could give a length estimate of the species’ carapace. Several physico-chemical factors affect the growth and development of crustaceans. Environmental stress in coastline waters is usually caused by organic waste disposal which then results in low amount of important crustaceans harvested in fisheries and can also influence the biodiversity of decapod crabs. The physico-chemical parameters are crucial ecological factors, as they directly affect oxygen consumption, metabolism, growth, moulting, hormones and survival of crustaceans (Varadharajan D et al., 2013). The salinity is one of the main factors that alter the distribution of organisms, and this is likely to affect the decapods crab distribution and production as well. The alkaline pH was observed to be related with increased number of crab species.

Philosophies of Learning Theory

INTRODUCTION What is theory? A theory is a way of thinking and a model of how things work, how principles are related, and what causes things to work together. Learning theories address key questions, for example, how does learning happen? How does motivation occur? What influences students’ development? A theory is not just an idea. It’s an idea that is a coherent explanation of a set of relationships that has been tested with lots of research. If the idea survives rigorous testing, that theory is said to have empirical grounding. A theory is developed from practical experience as well as research.Any given theory is usually about one aspect of the learning process. Learning theories  are  conceptual frameworks  that describe how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during  learning. Learning brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, valu es, and world views. There are three main categories of learning theory:  behaviorism,  cognitivism, and  constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning.Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts. Philosophies of teaching and learning, numerous philosophers have studied what the meaning of to teach and learn, and have come up with various explanations of the process of becoming educated. Their begin to refine their own beliefs and understandings of what it means to know through examining numerous theories of knowledge and making sense of the processes of teaching and learning in their own minds.An few philosophies and examples of individuals who exemplify the concepts are worth exploring: Existentialism (Maxine Greene, Jean-Paul Sartre, Soren Kierkegaard, Simone de Beauvoir), Critical T heory (Karl Marx, Henry Geroux, Michael Apple, Paulo Friere), Behaviorism (B. F. Skinner), Cognitivism / Developmentalism (Maria Montessori, A. S. Neill, John Dewey, Knowles, Waldorf Schools, Reggio Emilia Schools), Social Constructivism (John Dewey, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, Montessori, Reggio Emilia and Waldorf Schools). 1. 0 LEARNING THEORIESIn  psychology  and education,  learning  theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning. There are three main categories (philosophical frameworks) under which learning  theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. 1. 1 Behaviorism Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning and discounts the internal processing that might be associated with the activity. Learning is the acquisition of new  behavior  through conditioning. There are two types of possible conditioning: ) Classical conditionin g, where the  behavior  becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs. 2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the  behavior  by a reward or a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B. F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring.It is important to note that, a punisher is not considered to be punishment if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior. 1. 2. Cognitivism Since the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm was begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. So for example how the natural physiological processes of encoding information into short term memory and long term memory become important to educators. Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive  Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory.These theories of learning are very useful as they guide the Instructional design. 1. 3. Constructivism Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds n ew ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. In other words, â€Å"learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences. † Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. 1. 4. Informal and Post-Modern TheoriesInformal theories of education deal with more practical breakdown of the learning process. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. Modern thinkers favor the latter, though without any basis in real world research. Critics believe that trying to teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like trying to build a masonry structure without bricks. Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learning.To this end, many have split off from the mains tream holding that learning is a primarily self taught thing, and that the ideal learning situation is one that is self taught. According to this dogma, learning at its basic level is all self taught, and class rooms should be eliminated since they do not fit the perfect model of self learning. However, real world results indicate that isolated students fail. Social support seems crucial for sustained learning. Informal learning theory also concerns itself with book vs real-world experience learning. Many consider most schools severely lacking in the second.Newly emerging hybrid instructional models combining traditional classroom and computer enhanced instruction promise the best of both worlds. 2. 0 PHILOSOPHY ON LEARNING THEORIES. People have been trying to understand learning for over 2000 years. Learning theorists have carried out a debate on how people learn that began at least as far back as the Greek philosophers, Socrates (469 –399 B. C. ), Plato (427 – 347 B. C. ), and Aristotle(384 – 322 B. C). The debates that have occurred through the ages reoccur today in a variety of viewpoints about the purposes of education and about how to encourage learning.To a substantial extent, the most effective strategies for learning depend on what kind of learning is desired and toward what ends. Plato and one of his students, Aristotle, were early entrants into the debate about how people learn. They asked, â€Å"Is truth and knowledge to be found within us (rationalism) or is it to be found outside of ourselves by using our senses (empiricism)? † Plato, as a rationalist, developed the belief that knowledge and truth can be discovered by self-reflection. Aristotle, the empiricist, used his senses to look for truth and knowledge in the world outside of him.From his empirical base Aristotle developed a scientific method of gathering data to study the world around him. Socrates developed the dialectic method of discovering truth through conv ersations with fellow citizens (Monroe, 1925). Inquiry methods owe much of their genesis to the thinking of Aristotle and others who followed this line of thinking. Strategies that call for discourse and reflection as tools for developing thinking owe much to Socrates and Plato. The Romans differed from the Greeks in their concept of education.The meaning of life did not intrigue them as much as developing a citizenry that could contribute to society in a practical way, for building roads and aqueducts. The Romans emphasized education as the vocational training rather than as the training of the mind for the discovery of truth. Modern vocational education and apprenticeship methods are reminiscent of the Roman approach to education. As we will see, however, strategies to encourage cognitive apprenticeships combine the modeling inherent in learning by guided doing with the discourse, reflection, and inquiry that the Greeks suggested to train the mind.When the Roman Catholic Church be came a strong force in European daily life (500 A. D. to 1500 A. D. ), learning took place through the church, through monasteries, and through their school system, which included the universities (12th century) the Church built throughout Europe. Knowledge was transmitted from the priest to the people (Monroe, 1925). Much learning was the memorization and recitation of scripture by rote and the learning of trades by apprenticeship. The primary conception of the purpose of education was transmission-based.Many classrooms today continue a transmission-based conception of learning as the passing on of information from the teacher to the student, with little interest in transforming it or using it for novel purposes. The Renaissance (15th to the 17th centuries) revived the Greek concept of liberal education, which stressed education as an exploration of the arts and humanities. Renaissance philosophers fought for freedom of thought, and thus Humanism, a study of human values that are n ot religion-based, was born.By the sixteenth century the control of the Catholic Church was being challenged on a number of fronts, from Copernicus (1473 – 1543) who suggested that the sun rather than the earth was the center of the Solar System, to Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) who sought to secularize education (Monroe,1925). The notions of individual inquiry and discovery as bases for learning were reinforced in the Renaissance. In a sense the recurring ideological debates over education for â€Å"basic† skills – the reproduction of facts and rudimentary skills – vs. ducation for thinking – the effort to understand ideas and use knowledge for broader purposes – replay the medieval vs. Renaissance conceptions of the purposes of education. Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) revived the Platonic concept of innate knowledge. Descartes believed that ideas existed within human beings prior to experience and that God was an example of an i nnate idea. He recognized that the body could be appreciated and studied as a zoological machine, while the mind was separate and free from the body.He was one of the first to define precisely the ability of the environment and the mind to influence and initiate behavior. He also described how the body could produce unintended behaviors. Descartes’ first description of reflex action was influential in psychology for over 300 years (Hergenhahn, 1976). While these findings supported the work of behavioral psychologists seeking to understand the genesis of behaviors, his focus on the mind also supported the work of later cognitive scientists who sought to understand the thinking process itself.John Locke (1632 – 1704) revived Aristotle’s empiricism with the concept that the child’s mind is a blank tablet (tabula rasa) that gets s haped and formed by his/her own experiences. He believed the mind becomes what it experiences from the outside world. â€Å"Let u s suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas: How comes it to be furnished? †¦ Whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge? †¦ from experience† (Locke, quoted in Hilgard and Bower 1975).The mind gathers data through the senses and creates simple ideas from experience; these simple ideas combine to develop complex ideas. Locke believed that education should structure experiences for students and that one essential learning was the kind of discipline that could be developed through the study of mathematics (Hergenhahn, 1976). The idea that different disciplines provide qualitatively different mental experiences and means of training the mind undergirds the basis of the discipline-based liberal arts education.Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) was one of the first philosophers to suggest that education should be shaped to the child. He celebrated the concept of childhood and felt that children should be allowed to develop naturally. â€Å"The only habit which the child should be allowed to form is to contract no habit whatever. † (Rousseau, quoted in Hilgard and Bower, 1975) In Rousseau’s novel, Emile (Rousseau, 2000), the hero learns about life through his experiences in life. Complex ideas are built from simple ideas that are gathered from the world around him (Hilgard and Bower, 1975).The child-centered philosophies of Dewey, Montessori, Piaget and others follow in part from similar views. Kant (1724 – 1804) refined and modernized Plato’s rationalist theory with his suggestion that â€Å"a priori† knowledge was knowledge that was present before experience. For Kant, awareness of knowledge may begin with experience but knowledge existed prior to experience. Kant espoused that these ideas must be innate, and their purpose is to create an organizing structure for the data that is received by the senses.Kant was also one of the first to recognize t he cognitive processes of the mind, the idea that the mind was a part of the thinking process and capable of contributing to the thoughts that it developed. This learning theory opened the door to Piaget and others who would further develop the ideas of cognition (Monroe, 1925). Edward Thorndike (1874 – 1949) is considered by many to be the first modern education psychologist who sought to bring a scientific approach to the study of learning. Thorndike believed that learning was incremental and that people learned through a trial and error approach.His behaviorist theories of learning did not consider that learning took place as a result of mental constructs. Instead, he described how mental connections are formed through positive responses to particular stimuli. For Thorndike, learning was based on an association between sense impressions and an impulse to action. Thorndike favored students’ active learning and sought to structure the environment to ensure certain sti muli that would ‘produce’ learning. The father of modern behaviorism, B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990), further developed Thorndike’s Stimulus-Response learning theory.Skinner was responsible for developing programmed learning which was based on his stimulus response research on rats and pigeons in experiments that provided positive reinforcement for â€Å"correct† responses. He considered learning to be the production of desired behaviors, and denied any influence of mental processes. Programmed learning gave proper reinforcement to the student, emphasized reward over punishment, moved the student by small steps through discrete skills and allowed the student to move at their own speed. â€Å"There are certain questions which have to be answered in turning to the study of any new organism.What behavior is to be set up? What reinforcers are at hand? What responses are available in embarking upon a program of progressive approximation that will lead to t he final form of the behavior? How can reinforcements be most effectively scheduled to maintain the behavior in strength? These questions are all relevant in considering the problem of the child in the lower grades. † Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) was the first to state that learning is a developmental cognitive process, that students create knowledge rather than receive knowledge from the teacher.He recognized that students construct knowledge based on their experiences, and that how they do so is related to their biological, physical, and mental stage of development. Piaget spent years observing very young children and mapping out four stages of growth: sensorimotor (birth to about 2 years), preoperational (roughly ages 2 –7), concrete operations (encompassing about ages 7- 14) and formal operations (beginning around ages 11 – 15 and extending into adulthood.His work acknowledged the utility of some behaviorally-guided rote learningwhile also arguing that ot her activities that support students’ exploration are essential: The Russian scientist Vygotsky (1896 – 1934) extended Piaget’s developmental theory of cognitive abilities of the individual to include the notion of social-cultural cognition – that is, the idea that all learning occurs in a cultural context and involves social interactions. He emphasized the role that culture and language play in developing students’ thinking and the ways in which teachers and peers assist learners in developing new ideas and skills.Vygotsky proposed the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) which suggested that students learn subjects best just beyond their range of existing experience with assistance from the teacher or another peer to bridge the distance from what they know or can do independently and what they can know or do with assistance (Schunk, 1996). John Dewey (1859 – 1952) agreed in part with Rousseau that education should not be separ ate from life itself, that education should be child-centered, guided by a welltrained teacher who is grounded in pedagogical and subject knowledge.Like Locke, he believed that structured experience matters and disciplinary modes of inquiry could allow the development of the mind, thus creating a dialectic between the child and the curriculum that the teacher must manage. The teacher’s goal is to understand both the demands of the discipline and the needs of the child and then to provide learning experiences to enable the student to uncover the curriculum. Dewey believed that the ability of a person to learn was dependent on many things, one of which was the environment. . 0 Future trends There are many changes occurring in the twenty-first century which will influence the nature of learning and learning styles being adopted. Perhaps the most significant change is that universities are now increasingly competing with a range of non-traditional education providers. This will f orce higher education into a pro-active stance in understanding how students learn best, and how teaching impacts on learning. Additional contemporary changes include globalisation, modularisation, mobility of earners, distance education/elearning/flexible learning, lifelong learning, mass education, and work-based learning. ‘The de-institutionalisation of education, in the form of open and independent learning systems, is creating a need for learners to develop appropriate skills’ (Knowles, 1975, p. 14). The impact here on learners is the gradual move away from the more traditional forms of teaching and learning, where information was transmitted to the student through physical interaction between teacher and student, to more self-directed, student-centred approaches.Problem-based learning is an example of one approach to learning where the learner needs to take responsibility for his or her own learning, with the teacher now increasingly assuming the role of facilitat or of student learning. The impact of technology and the internet will continue to increase, having economic and social implications for society. For instance people can now work from home if they have immediate access to a computer. This may facilitate the increase of distance-learning courses as students no longer have to attend a physical campus to gain qualifications.Increasing modularisation enables many students to learn at their own pace, in their own time. CONCLUSION The Philosophy of education has been shaped over centuries with certain philosophers and their thoughts directly affecting it. A good example is Plato and his  educational philosophy  that was christened Republic. He argues that the society would be holistic if children at a tender age would be raised with a system of education that natures their intellectual capabilities with facts, physical discipline, music, art and skills.The same principles can be applied to an individual institution. This can be define d as a collective approach informed by educational philosophy  to aid in teaching in a way that the objective of imparting knowledge is achieved within a reasonable time. This philosophy of education is subject to review and modification, total over haul or improvements depending on whether the constant evaluation shows whether the goals set have been achieved or not. The drastic advances in technology have also affected the educational philosophy.The world is moving towards the web 2. 0, where technological interaction between learners and teachers is emphasized. Another factor that informs education philosophy is the fact that the world is changing its educational strategies. At one point in history, education was a transit of knowledge from the tutor to student. With nationals encouraging innovations and research in various fields, students are encouraged to discover, be inquisitive and get to learn through active experiments and research.This is a way that has revolutionized t he way education policy makers and other stakeholders define philosophy of education. The relevancy of a given  philosophy of education  therefore, is determined by the educational needs of a given society. REFERENCES 1- Level3, Issue 2, June 2004, Dublin Institute of Technology, Learning Theories and Higher Education; Frank Ashworth, Gabriel Brennan, Kathy Egan, Ron Hamilton, Olalla Saenz; 2- Critique of Various Philosophies and Theories of Education; Ted Slater, Philosophy of Education / Dr.William Cox / Regent University. 3- 2007, Pearson Education, Inc. H. Douglas Brown. -5th Edition; Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. 4- Kurzweil, R. (1996) The Age of intelligent machines â€Å"Chronology†. Retrieved September 18, 2012 from http://www. kurzweiltech. com/mchron. htm. 5- 2001, Stanford University, Developed by Linda-Darling Hammond, Kim Austin, Suzanne Orcutt, and Jim Rosso; How People Learn: Introduction To Learning Theories.

Business cycle Essay

Discuss the phases of business cycle. Suggest Suitable Fiscal policy and monetary policy to overcome the recession in economy. Business Cycle – A business cycle is also known as trade cycle. It implies wave like fluctuations in the level of economic activity, particularly in national income a, employment and output. It is a short term picture of the behaviour of real output in a private enterprise economy. Business cycle refers to upturn and downturn in the level of economic activity that extends over a period of time. The business fluctuations occur in aggregate variable such as national income, employment and price level. The variables nearly move at the same time and in the same direction. However they vary in duration and intensity. Cyclic fluctuations have the following features: †¢Wave line movements – ocyclical fluctuations are wave like movements and are recurrent in nature ocharacterized by alternation of expansions( prosperity) and contraction ( depression) in economic activity oare repetitive and rhythmic ocontains oscillating movements in the form of waves from peak to trough and trough to peak †¢Synchronic – oEntire business of an economy acts like an organism oAny happening on economic front affects the entire economy oAnd through the mechanism of international trade affects entire world oexample -The Great depression 1929 †¢Cumulative – oProcess of expansion and contraction is of cumulative and self-reinforcing in nature oMoves in same direction until external forces reverses its direction †¢Self-generating forces – oIt can terminate the period of prosperity and start depression oCannot have definite period of prosperity or depression †¢Non identical – oPeriod of trade cycle are not identical although they recur with great regularity †¢Not symmetrical oPeak and trough are not symmetrical oMovement from upward to downward is more sudden and violent than that from downward to upward oDownturn is sharp and steep oIt is relatively narrow at its peak and flatter at its trough Phases of business cycle: A business cycle can be divided into four phases. They are shown in the fig 1.1 The phases are: 1.Expansion or prosperity or the upswing 2.Recession or upper-turning point 3.Contraction or depression or downswing 4.Revival or recovery or lower turning point These phases are recurrent and uniform in case of different cycles. But no phase has definite periodicity or time intervals. A business cycle starts from trough or low point, passes trough a recovery and prosperity phase, rises to peak, declines through a recession and depression phases and again reaches a trough. 1)Expansion or prosperity or the upswing or peak or Boom – The top of a business cycle is called Peak or Boom or prosperity phase. In the boom period, the overall business activity is rising at a more rapid rate. There is a rise in real output and incomes of the people. There is a rise in production, prices, employment, wages, interest rates, profits and in the volume of bank credit. The general mood of the businessmen is that of optimism and commercial. The industrial activity both speculative and non-speculative shows remarkable expansion. Construction activity gets a big boost. Share markets give good gains to the investors. Financial institutions tend to expand credit. In the words of Haberler. ‘‘Prosperity is ‘a state of affairs in which the real income consumed, real income produced and the level of employment are high or rising and there are no idle resources or unemployed workers or very few of either†. During prosperity period, there is a high level of demand for capital goods and consumer goods and services. Risky investments are undertaken by the entrepreneurs. Inefficient firms enter into the market and manage to survive. The high level of demand for the various inputs creates shortage of some of them. Inflation goes up. The economy becomes supply constrained. The state of prosperity proves to be short lived and the downturn of its period starts. 2) Recession or upper-turning point – The end of prosperity comes and enters into recession. Recession is a slowdown of business activity. In recession employment and output both decline. The forces which bring the contractionary phase of business fluctuations (recession) are as follows: a) As prices of the commodities rise the wages of the workers tend to lag behind. The reduction in the purchasing powers of the workers brings down the demand for consumer goods b) Due to shortage of some inputs the expansion in production of goods is hampered. c) The non-availability of credit beyond a particular limit of expansion acts as a serious brake on prosperity. The financial institutions begin to recover the loans. The firms which are unable to pay back the loans begin to liquidate their stocks. When more firms sell their output at the same time the price level starts falling. If a few firms get involved in losses a wave of pessimism runs through the share markets. The firms begin to curtail production. Workers are laid off. The outstanding orders for raw materials are cancelled. The new projects are shelved. The wave of pessimism passes on to other sectors of the economy and the businessmen become panicky and the whole economic system runs into crisis. Then the next stage of business cycle called depression starts. 3)Depression or Trough or downswing – Depression is the most fearful stage of a trade cycle. The phase of depression (also called slump) is characterized by low economic activities, rapid decline in general output and employment. The decline in economic activity is not uniform. There is much more decline in output in manufacturing mining construction transport industries. However there is comparatively less contraction in output in retail trade and agriculture. In slump, there is a marked fall in the average prices of the commodities. The costs are relatively higher the profits of the entrepreneurs decline. The purchasing power of the money is high but due to low income there is too much contraction in effective demand for consumer goods. The expenditure on capital goods or its replacement greatly falls Most of the firms reduce their output or close down. The income of the shareholders goes down. Depression or slump leads to redistribution of national income Profits and wages fall faster relatively to rent and other fixed incomes. The bankers  follow the policy of credit contraction. Due to dull business conditions producers are also reluctant to borrow funds Summing up in a period of slump there is negative net investment by firms falling demand of consumer as well as capital goods high unemployment and low level of imports. In the words of Haberler, Depression is a state of affairs in which real income consumed or volume of production per head and the rate of employment are falling. There are idle resources and unused capacity especially unused labour.’’ In the economic life of the world such acute crises have occurred in the years 1710 1827 1873 1907 and 1929. 4) Revival or Recovery – The economic conditions which we have described in depression phase do not remain as such forever. After sometime revival or recovery sets in under the influence of a variety of factors. The revival phase develops when the accumulated stock of commodities with the businessmen are exhausted. The costs under the impact of prolonged depression begin to fall. The prices which have reached its lowest level stop falling further. There is then complete harmony between costs and price relationship. When profits begin to reappear, the businessmen are induced to invest their hoarded money in some enterprises: In order to steal a march over other industrialists, they start repairs, renewal and replacements of their capital equipments and stocks. The capital goods industries resume activities. There is gradual of labor. The money incomes begin to increase and the effective demand is revived. The government also tries to break the spell of depression by starting construction or expanding some public works with a view to give more employment. The commercial, banks which have accumulated large reserve offer credit on favorable terms. The marginal efficiency of capital begins to rise and investment opportunities brighten up. The consumers start buying commodities to avoid the rise. Due to increase in demand for commodities, investment in various industries is stimulated and thus the revival takes place. The recovery phase of business cycle thus is characterized by rising production, increasing prices of both consumption and capital goods, rising of wages, rates, enlarged opportunities of employment, and greater amount of  spending on consumption and investment goods. Prior to 1940’s, there were frequent booms and depressions in the capitalistic world. However, after the World War-Il, the strong cyclical upswings and downswings have been considerably tamed by the timely applications of fiscal and monetary measures. The fluctuations in economic activity are now moderate. Consequently, the term economic expansion and economic contraction are used now for the terms boom and recession. Both expansionary monetary policy and expansionary fiscal policy are being used to counter the recession. Expansionary monetary policy is basically just lending more money to people; people borrow that money and spend it creating demand in the process. The United States has been using expansionary monetary policy for about 20 years straight now which has directly lead to massive increases in the levels of debt in the economy. Debt levels are so high now that no one can actually borrow any more so monetary policy has stopped working. Monetary policy is at the most expansionary setting possible right now and it is having effectively no expansionary impact on the economy as a consequence of excessive debt levels. Fiscal policy thus is the only option left available to actually rectify the situation; basically all you are doing is spending money through the government thus creating demand in the economy. Measures being taken include tax cuts, other measures being taken include infrastructure spending and extending the length of unemployment benefits. This is basically a Keynesian approach. Keynesian economics revolves around the concept of ‘aggregate demand’ the government can increase the amount of aggregate demand through government spending. A Keynesian approach is fundamentally the right way to go under the circumstances that exist as this crisis is basically a crisis of demand. The classical approach is to do nothing and to rely on the natural robustness of the macro economy to solve the problem. Most macroeconomists agree that this is ineffective if not stupid, but it was first thought to be the solution to the 1929 market crash. The Keynesian approach takes several forms but all of them are supposed to  result in the so called â€Å"multiplier effect† causing the economy to grow once it has been stimulated by making more money available at some place in the social system. Unfortunately it doesn’t work due to this money having to be borrowed or taken from some other part of the system. Keynesian economics is only a partial model and is unable to really show how it might grow. The current Keynesian methods in use are to borrow money from the public and increase the national debt. Also to print more money and use it to reduce this debt, but this means inflation and it is no more effective than that of the greater loans. Inflation is also dishonest because it makes the debt owed by the government of smaller value in terms of what its money can buy. Money is only a representative of wealth, not wealth itself. If the system were one of barter and in the present crisis then more money does not mean more wealth, except for the printers of course. To reduce the rate of interest on the national debt does help to reduce the budget deficit for the next year, but it is not very effective and will not solve the problem at anything like the speed needed. So that with present methods there is no way to get out of the recession. Fiscal Policy When it comes to how fiscal policy affects the economy during a recession, the government has some automatic stabilizers in effect. These items work to automatically stabilize the economy when a recession takes place. With fiscal policies, the government influences the economy by changing how it (the government) spends and collects money. For example, the income tax system acts an automatic stabilizer. When people make less money, they also pay less money in income taxes. Unemployment benefits are another example of an automatic stabilizer. This helps families continue to receive income so that they can keep spending and keeps the economy going. The most common fiscal policy actions in a recession are: †¢Tax cuts for businesses or for individuals – When the economy is struggling during a recession, the government can attempt to help the situation by charging less in taxes. In many cases, the executive and legislative branches work together to cut taxes for Americans. By doing this, it gives  people more discretionary income so that they can spend and stimulate the economy. i.e people and corporations have more money, which may make them more likely to buy things, which increases demand.Once the economy stabilizes, the government can gradually reintroduce the taxes and help keep the economy and the government going. †¢Increase Government Purchases Another way that the government can use fiscal policy to stabilize the economy during a recession is to increase government purchases. The government can use more money to buy goods and services from domestic providers. This increase in sales helps stimulate the businesses. This increases demand for labour, which can lower the unemployment rate.These businesses can then use this increase in income to buy more supplies and expand even further. Once this begins to happen, it can have a positive effect on the entire economy and stabilize the recession by providing more jobs and opportunities for unemployed entrepreneurs. †¢Expansionary vs.Contractionary – One of the arguments among economics on how to use fiscal policy centers around expansionary and contractionary strategies. An expansionary fiscal policy involves increasing government expenditures or lowering taxes so that the deficit increases. By comparison, a contractionary fiscal policy cuts back on government expenditures or increases taxes so that the government can have a financial surplus. Using an expansionary policy can improve the economy in the short-term, but eventually it could hurt the economy as the government’s debt becomes too large. Monetary Policy During an economic recession, unemployment rises while incomes, business investment and consumer spending fall. Monetary policy aims to shorten recessions by encouraging consumer spending and investment. Monetary policy actions can help shorten recessions or reduce their impacts, but economic conditions may limit their impact. In addition, it takes time for policy decisions to be felt throughout the economy at large. Government usually responds to an economic recession through stimulative fiscal policy, expansionary monetary policy or a combination of the two. Stimulative fiscal policy involves higher government spending in an attempt to stimulate the economy. Expansionary monetary policy consists of actions by central banks,  such as the U.S. Federal Reserve, RBI to expand the money supply to encourage more consumer spending and business lending. Expansionary monetary policy actions to battle a recession include the purchase of government bonds by central banks, reducing banks’ reserve requirements, and lowering short-term interest rates. Effects Of monetary policy- The purchase of government bonds by central banks injects more money into the economy. Lower reserve requirements give banks more money to lend because they are required to hold fewer reserves against deposits. Increased lending by banks stimulates business investment and expansion. A reduction in short-term interest rates also encourages more investment by reducing the cost of borrowing. Lowering short-term interest rates also reduces the rates on home mortgages, lowering mortgage payments for homeowners, giving them additional disposable income. Although expansionary monetary policy has the ability to reduce the length and severity of an economic recession, there is no guarantee it can do so. Lower interest rates, for example, may not stimulate consumer spending if consumers have little confidence in the economy. They are unlikely to increase their spending if they believe their jobs are at risk because of a sluggish economy. Businesses may be reluctant to invest in new facilities and equipment for expanded operations if the economy is in a recession. Finally, banks may be unwilling to increase their lending during a recession. Time Frame †¢Another concern about the ability of monetary policy to impact a recession is that the effects of policy decisions, such as a cut in interest rates, will not be immediately felt. It can take more than a year for the effects of lower interest rates to be felt. †¢During the 1991 and 2001 recessions, Federal Reserve policymakers repeatedly cut short-term interest rates to stimulate investment and consumer spending. It took time, however, for the effects to be felt. In 2001, for example, a series of Fed cuts reduced short-term interest rates to near zero. However, consumer uncertainty about the future, resulting from the 9/11 terrorist attacks, coupled with a  distrust of corporate accounting practices resulting from the collapse of Enron, blunted the effects of Fed efforts to expand the money supply. †¢In the end, the course of a nation’s recession is controlled by the actions of everybody living in the country. Anything influenced by so many people is beyond the control of any one person or group — it seems to have a mind of its own. But in the United States, time has proven that attitudes and economic factors shift, and every recession is a temporary recession. Eventually, things turn around and an upward spiral is reestablished. In the face of an economic collapse, the role of the government is invaluable. Governments have the power to avert an impending economic and financial disaster. 1. Encourage exports. The government should focus on the export business segment because it would infuse necessary foreign currencies into the country which would be used to pay debts, import goods and other necessities. 2. Provide Accessible Credit for Business. Local businesses should be encouraged by the government to compensate for unemployment thru extending credit to them. More businesses mean more jobs for the people. Or at least, source of income for the family. 3. Improve Tax Collection. Implement speedy and effective tax collection measures. Taxes can finance government expenditures such as provision of credit to businesses or budgets for social welfare. 4. Set Aside Large Amount Amount for Social Welfare. This will quell panic and riots and restore confidence in the people. Positive outlook will be developed in the process. This will also enable people to get back of their feet and start anew. 5. Control Expenditures in Other Fields. Slash budgets on unnecessary expenditures in other areas – military, legislative, executive, other branches. 6. Improve Tourism. Lure more tourists to the country. More tourists mean more money injected to the economy. Businesses will naturally sprout even small businesses in order to cater to the needs of these tourists. The main problem is the lack of funds as businesses closed and investors pull out their investments. The solution is to encourage the injection of money back to the country. Focus on the solution.

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